8.1 Learning theories

Learning theories

For several decades now, it has been argued that activating learners in the learning process, so that they construct conceptual knowledge and understanding themselves, is more effective than lecturing and instructing alone. In instructional science, three main instructional theories are generally discerned: behaviourism, connectionism and constructivism (Ertmer & Newby, 1993; 2013; Valcke, 2010).

Each of these learning theories has its own answers to questions about effective learning and instruction, such as how does learning occur, which factors influence learning and how should instruction be structured.

Behaviourism was the dominant instructional theory in the early years of instructional science, and aimed at teaching for the purpose of recalling factual knowledge and automatising motoric performances. Its instructional structure mainly evolved around giving instruction to learners or modelling behaviour, letting learners practice, repetition, and reinforcement by using stimuli and cues. In the second half of the 20^th century, instructional science became more interested in what happens in the “black box of mental processing”, and higher order learning outcomes such as conceptual knowledge, the application of this knowledge in problem-solving, and the development of meta-cognitive skills.

The theories of cognitivism and constructivism started to dominate the landscape of instructional science. Now, more attention is paid to supporting the working of a learner’s memory, the influence of intrinsic motivation and attitudes on learning (e.g. Ryan & Deci, 2000), the creation of authentic and meaningful learning environments, and the re-use of knowledge rather than recall of facts. Neurological insights into how the brain works, and how learning can be hampered by cognitive overload (e.g. Sweller, 1994), further inform the design of effective constructivist learning environments. The general idea behind both theories is that to make teaching effective the learner should be ‘activated’ so that information processing starts with the prior knowledge a learner already possesses. A learner can then start to construct new knowledge and deep understanding by assimilating and/or accommodating old and new knowledge in new schemas. Constructivism is the dominant learning theory today. It fits the current vision of curricula to address conceptual knowledge, attitudes and higher order thinking skills, rather than the recall of facts. It also fits current views on the need for differentiated classrooms (e.g. Tomlinson, 2003). At the same time, it should be emphasised that instructional designers are wise to use all available learning theories, as they are suitable for different kinds of learning goals and learner needs. “As one moves along the behaviourist-cognitivist-constructivist continuum, the focus of instruction shifts from teaching to learning, from the passive transfer of facts and routines to the active application of ideas to problems” (Ertmer & Newby, 1993, p.58). Since facts and routines are an important part of VET curricula, behaviourist approaches in the learning environment will remain as effective as ever when used appropriately. In light of the current design question, however, that is, how to design VET curricula sufficiently flexible for a variety of lifelong learners in different learning environments, a focus on constructivist pedagogies seems necessary.

Further reading:

• Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-72.
• Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (2013). Article update: Behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism: Connecting "yesterday’s” theories to today’s contexts. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 26(2), 65-71.
• Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78.
• Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and Instruction, 4, 295-312.
• Tomlinson, C. (2003). Fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom: Strategies and tools for responsive teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
• Valcke, M. (2010). Onderwijskunde als ontwerpwetenschap: Een inleiding voor ontwikkelaars van instructie en voor toekomstige leerkrachten [ Education as a design science: an introduction for instructional designers and future teachers ]. Gent: Academia Press.